Liposomal Amphotericin B Usefulness in Critical Care Unit: A Review Study
Archives of Critical Care Medicine,
Vol. 2 No. 1 (2016),
30 October 2023
Abstract
During the last 3 decades, the prevalence and variety of invasive fungal infections increased, especially in the critically ill patients thanks to advances in medical sciences, modification of the instruments, drugs, and protective-therapeutic methods. Such infec[1]tions are administered by 4 pharmaceutical classes as follows: 1. Polyenes; 2. Azoles; 3. Echinocandins; 4. Pyrimidine analogues. One of these drugs is polyenes consisting of amphotericin and its lipid-based formulation. The lipid formulation of this drug is used due to its fewer side effects compared with the conventional type of the drug that makes it possible to enhance the drug efficacy by increasing the administered dosage. This pharmaceutical class is used to treat the following diseases in the critically ill patients: candidiasis, invasive aspergillosis, mucorales infection, cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, visceral leishmaniosis, persistent fever and neutropenia, renal replacement therapy (RRT) in intensive care unit (ICU), kidney transplantation, and liver problems. Now, the word health organization (WHO) approved liposomal amphotericin B (AmB) as the first-line treatment of visceral leishmaniosis in the Eastern Africa. It was even used with a single dose of 10 mg/kg with 95% efficacy. The current study aimed at investigating the effect of amphotericin and its lipid formulation to treat the aforementioned diseases.
- Liposomal
How to Cite
References
Fleming RV, Walsh TJ, Anaissie EJ. Emerging and less common fungal
pathogens. Infectious disease clinics of North America. 2002;16(4):915–
Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Anaissie EJ. Fungal infections in iatrogenically compromised hosts. Adv Intern Med. 1998;43:321–71. [PubMed: 9506187].
Wisplinghoff H, Bischoff T, Tallent SM, Seifert H, Wenzel RP, Edmond
MB. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of
,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(3):309–17. doi: 10.1086/421946. [PubMed: 15306996].
Marsh PK, Tally FP, Kellum J, Callow A, Gorbach SL. Candida infections
in surgical patients. Ann Surg. 1983;198(1):42–7. [PubMed: 6407409].
D’Amelio LF, Wagner B, Azimuddin S, Sutyak JP, Hammond JS. Antibiotic patterns associated with fungal colonization in critically ill surgical patients. The American surgeon. 1995;61(12):1049–53.
Rieger CT, Cornely OA, Hoppe-Tichy T, Kiehl M, Knoth H, Thalheimer
M, et al. Treatment cost of invasive fungal disease (Ifd) in patients
with acute myelogenous leukaemia (Aml) or myelodysplastic syndrome (Mds) in German hospitals. Mycoses. 2012;55(6):514–20. doi:
1111/j.1439-0507.2012.02193.x. [PubMed: 22471310].
Van Thiel DH, George M, Moore CM. Fungal infections: their diagnosis
and treatment in transplant recipients. International journal of hepatology. 2012;2012.
Neumann A, Baginski M, Winczewski S, Czub J. The effect of
sterols on amphotericin B self-aggregation in a lipid bilayer as revealed by free energy simulations. Biophys J. 2013;104(7):1485–94. doi:
1016/j.bpj.2013.02.029. [PubMed: 23561525].
Ghannoum MA, Rice LB. Antifungal agents: mode of action, mechanisms of resistance, and correlation of these mechanisms with
bacterial resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999;12(4):501–17. [PubMed:
.
Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L, Tendolkar S, Hollis RJ, Diekema DJ.
Geographic variation in the susceptibilities of invasive isolates of
Candida glabrata to seven systemically active antifungal agents: a
global assessment from the ARTEMIS Antifungal Surveillance Program conducted in 2001 and 2002. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42(7):3142–6.
doi: 10.1128/JCM.42.7.3142-3146.2004. [PubMed: 15243073].
Sabatelli F, Patel R, Mann PA, Mendrick CA, Norris CC, Hare R, et
al. In vitro activities of posaconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole,
voriconazole, and amphotericin B against a large collection of clinically important molds and yeasts. Antimicrob Agents Chemother.
;50(6):2009–15. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00163-06. [PubMed: 16723559].
Deray G. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. J Antimicrob Chemother.
;49 Suppl 1:37–41. [PubMed: 11801579].
Paramythiotou E, Frantzeskaki F, Flevari A, Armaganidis A, Dimopoulos G. Invasive fungal infections in the ICU: how to approach, how to
treat. Molecules. 2014;19(1):1085–119. doi: 10.3390/molecules19011085.
[PubMed: 24445340].
Blot S, Vandewoude K. Management of invasive candidiasis in critically ill patients. Drugs. 2004;64(19):2159–75. [PubMed: 15456333].
Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Marr KA, Rex JH, Cohen SH. Amphotericin B:
time for a new "gold standard". Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(3):415–25. doi:
1086/376634. [PubMed: 12884167].
Bellmann R, Egger P, Gritsch W, Bellmann-Weiler R, Joannidis M,
Kaneider N, et al. Amphotericin B lipid formulations in critically ill
patients on continuous veno-venous haemofiltration. J Antimicrob
Chemother. 2003;51(3):671–81. [PubMed: 12615870]
Mistro S, Maciel Ide M, de Menezes RG, Maia ZP, Schooley RT, Badaro
R. Does lipid emulsion reduce amphotericin B nephrotoxicity? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(12):1774–7.
doi: 10.1093/cid/cis290. [PubMed: 22491505].
Mehta R, Lopez-Berestein G, Hopfer R, Mills K, Juliano RL. Liposomal
amphotericin B is toxic to fungal cells but not to mammalian cells.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes. 1984;770(2):230–4.
doi: 10.1016/0005-2736(84)90135-4.
Chopra R, Blair S, Strang J, Cervi P, Patterson KG, Goldstone AH. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) in the treatment of fungal infections in neutropenic patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1991;28 Suppl
B:93–104. [PubMed: 1778896].
Heinemann V, Jehn U, Scholz P, Gleixner B, Möhrle W, Wachholz K, et
al. AmBisome®: pharmacokinetics and clinical results. Bone marrow
transplantation. Supplement. 1993;12(4):S147–8.
Meunier F, Prentice HG, Ringden O. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome): safety data from a phase II/III clinical trial. J Antimicrob
Chemother. 1991;28 Suppl B:83–91. [PubMed: 1778895].
Tollemar J, Ringden O, Tyden G. Liposomal amphotericin-B (AmBisome) treatment in solid organ and bone marrow transplant
recipients. Efficacy and safety evaluation. Clinical transplantation.
;4(3):167–75.
Joly V, Saint-Julien L, Carbon C, Yeni P. Interactions of free and liposomal amphotericin B with renal proximal tubular cells in primary
culture. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990;255(1):17–22. [PubMed: 2213553].
Lopez-Berestein G, Bodey GP, Fainstein V, Keating M, Frankel LS, Zeluff
B, et al. Treatment of systemic fungal infections with liposomal amphotericin B. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149(11):2533–6. [PubMed: 2818111].
Lopez-Berestein G. Liposomes as carriers of antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987;31(5):675–8. [PubMed: 3300535].
Shigemi A, Matsumoto K, Ikawa K, Yaji K, Shimodozono Y, Morikawa
N, et al. Safety analysis of liposomal amphotericin B in adult patients: anaemia, thrombocytopenia, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and hypokalaemia. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011;38(5):417–20. doi:
1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.07.004. [PubMed: 21885259].
Sanches BF, Nunes P, Almeida H, Rebelo M. Atrioventricular block
related to liposomal amphotericin B. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014. doi:
1136/bcr-2013-202688. [PubMed: 24907206].
Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, Benjamin DJ, Calandra TF, Edwards
JJ, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin
Infect Dis. 2009;48(5):503–35. doi: 10.1086/596757. [PubMed: 19191635].
Mills EJ, Perri D, Cooper C, Nachega JB, Wu P, Tleyjeh I, et al. Antifungal
treatment for invasive Candida infections: a mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2009;8:23. doi:
1186/1476-0711-8-23. [PubMed: 19558681].
Dreyfuss D, Ricard JD, Gaudry S. Amphotericin B deoxycholate for candidiasis in intensive care unit patients revisited: medical, ethical, and
financial implications. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187(6):661–3. doi:
1164/ajrccm.187.6.661. [PubMed: 23504365].
Peleg AY, Woods ML. Continuous and 4 h infusion of amphotericin
B: a comparative study involving high-risk haematology patients.
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54(4):803–8. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkh403.
[PubMed: 15308606].
Cornely OA, Bassetti M, Calandra T, Garbino J, Kullberg BJ, Lortholary O, et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management
of Candida diseases 2012: non-neutropenic adult patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18 Suppl 7:19–37. doi: 10.1111/1469-0691.12039. [PubMed:
.
Kullberg BJ, Verweij PE, Akova M, Arendrup MC, Bille J, Calandra T, et al.
European expert opinion on the management of invasive candidiasis
in adults. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011;17 Suppl 5:1–12. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-
2011.03615.x. [PubMed: 21884296].
Bow EJ, Evans G, Fuller J, Laverdiere M, Rotstein C, Rennie R, et al. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for invasive candidiasis in adults.
Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2010;21(4):e122–50. [PubMed: 22132006].
Ruhnke M, Rickerts V, Cornely OA, Buchheidt D, Glockner A, Heinz W,
et al. Diagnosis and therapy of Candida infections: joint recommendations of the German Speaking Mycological Society and the PaulEhrlich-Society for Chemotherapy. Mycoses. 2011;54(4):279–310. doi:
1111/j.1439-0507.2011.02040.x. [PubMed: 21672038].
Limper AH, Knox KS, Sarosi GA, Ampel NM, Bennett JE, Catanzaro A,
et al. An official American Thoracic Society statement: Treatment of
fungal infections in adult pulmonary and critical care patients. Am J
Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(1):96–128. doi: 10.1164/rccm.2008-740ST.
[PubMed: 21193785].
Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, Martin P, Corey L. Invasive aspergillosis
in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors. Blood. 2002;100(13):4358–66. doi: 10.1182/blood2002-05-1496. [PubMed: 12393425].
Lin SJ, Schranz J, Teutsch SM. Aspergillosis case-fatality rate: systematic review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(3):358–66. doi:
1086/318483. [PubMed: 11170942].
Ostermann H, Solano C, Jarque I, Garcia-Vidal C, Gao X, Barrueta JA,
et al. Cost analysis of voriconazole versus liposomal amphotericin
B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis among patients with
haematological disorders in Germany and Spain. BMC Pharmacology
and Toxicology. 2014;15(1):52
Bern C, Chowdhury R. The epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis
in Bangladesh: prospects for improved control. Indian J Med Res.
;123(3):275–88. [PubMed: 16778310].
Millon L, Larosa F, Lepiller Q, Legrand F, Rocchi S, Daguindau E,
et al. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction detection of circulating DNA in serum for early diagnosis of mucormycosis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(10):e95–101. doi:
1093/cid/cit094. [PubMed: 23420816].
Walsh TJ, Anaissie EJ, Denning DW, Herbrecht R, Kontoyiannis DP,
Marr KA, et al. Treatment of aspergillosis: clinical practice guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis.
;46(3):327–60. doi: 10.1086/525258. [PubMed: 18177225].
Cornely OA, Maertens J, Bresnik M, Ebrahimi R, Dellow E, Herbrecht
R, et al. Efficacy outcomes in a randomised trial of liposomal amphotericin B based on revised EORTC/MSG 2008 definitions of invasive mould disease. Mycoses. 2011;54(5):e449–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-
2010.01947.x. [PubMed: 21039936].
Alcazar-Fuoli L, Mellado E, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Cuenca-Estrella M,
Rodriguez-Tudela JL. Aspergillus section Fumigati: antifungal susceptibility patterns and sequence-based identification. Antimicrob Agents
Chemother. 2008;52(4):1244–51. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00942-07. [PubMed:
.
Park BJ, Wannemuehler KA, Marston BJ, Govender N, Pappas PG,
Chiller TM. Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS.
;23(4):525–30. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e328322ffac. [PubMed:
.
Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill
RJ, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(3):291–322. doi: 10.1086/649858. [PubMed:
.
O’connor L, Livermore J, Sharp AD, Goodwin J, Gregson L, Howard SJ, et
al. Pharmacodynamics of liposomal amphotericin B and flucytosine
for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis: safe and effective regimens
for immunocompromised patients. The Journal of infectious diseases.
;208(2):351–61.
Chappuis F, Sundar S, Hailu A, Ghalib H, Rijal S, Peeling RW, et al.
Visceral leishmaniasis: what are the needs for diagnosis, treatment
and control? Nat Rev Microbiol. 2007;5(11):873–82. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1748. [PubMed: 17938629].
Alvar J, Velez ID, Bern C, Herrero M, Desjeux P, Cano J, et al. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS
One. 2012;7(5). e35671. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035671. [PubMed:
.
Burza S, Sinha PK, Mahajan R, Lima MA, Mitra G, Verma N, et al. Fiveyear field results and long-term effectiveness of 20 mg/kg liposomal
amphotericin B (Ambisome) for visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India.
PLoS neglected tropical diseases. 2014;8(1). e2603.
Salih NA, van Griensven J, Chappuis F, Antierens A, Mumina A, Hammam O, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for complicated visceral
leishmaniasis (kala-azar) in eastern Sudan: how effective is treatment
for this neglected disease? Trop Med Int Health. 2014;19(2):146–52. doi:
1111/tmi.12238. [PubMed: 24433217].
Elnaiem DE. Ecology and control of the sand fly vectors of Leishmania donovani in East Africa, with special emphasis on Phlebotomus orientalis. J Vector Ecol. 2011;36 Suppl 1:S23–31. doi: 10.1111/j.1948-
2011.00109.x. [PubMed: 21366778].
Collin S, Davidson R, Ritmeijer K, Keus K, Melaku Y, Kipngetich S, et
al. Conflict and kala-azar: determinants of adverse outcomes of kalaazar among patients in southern Sudan.ClinInfect Dis. 2004;38(5):612–
doi: 10.1086/381203. [PubMed: 14986243].
Bern C, Adler-Moore J, Berenguer J, Boelaert M, den Boer M, Davidson RN, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for the treatment of visceral
leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(7):917–24. doi: 10.1086/507530.
[PubMed: 16941377].
World Health Organisation. Control of the leishmaniasis: Report of a
meeting of the WHO Expert Committee on the Control of Leishmaniases.
Technical Report Series No. 949. Geneva; 2010. Available from: http://
whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_949_eng.pdf.
Balasegaram M, Ritmeijer K, Lima MA, Burza S, Ortiz Genovese G,
Milani B, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B as a treatment for human leishmaniasis. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2012;17(4):493–510. doi:
1517/14728214.2012.748036. [PubMed: 23167833].
Sundar S, Chakravarty J, Agarwal D, Rai M, Murray HW. Single-dose
liposomal amphotericin B for visceral leishmaniasis in India. N Engl
J Med. 2010;362(6):504–12. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0903627. [PubMed:
.
Maintz EM, Hassan M, Huda MM, Ghosh D, Hossain MS, Alim A, et al.
Introducing single dose liposomal amphotericin B for the treatment
of visceral leishmaniasis in rural bangladesh: feasibility and acceptance to patients and health staff. J Trop Med. 2014;2014:676817. doi:
1155/2014/676817. [PubMed: 24578710].
Anoopa Sharma D, Bern C, Varghese B, Chowdhury R, Haque R, Ali M,
et al. The economic impact of visceral leishmaniasis on households
in Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health. 2006;11(5):757–64. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-
2006.01604.x. [PubMed: 16640630].
Dorlo TP, Balasegaram M, Beijnen JH, de Vries PJ. Miltefosine: a
review of its pharmacology and therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of leishmaniasis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67(11):2576–97.
doi: 10.1093/jac/dks275. [PubMed: 22833634].
Andriole VT. Infections with Aspergillus species. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 1993;17(Supplement_2):481–6.
Pannuti C, Gingrich R, Pfaller MA, Kao C, Wenzel RP. Nosocomial pneumonia in patients having bone marrow transplant. Attributable mortality and risk factors. Cancer. 1992;69(11):2653–62. [PubMed: 1315207].
Bow EJ. Invasive fungal infection in haematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: epidemiology from the transplant physician’s viewpoint. Mycopathologia. 2009;168(6):283–97. doi: 10.1007/s11046-009-
-6. [PubMed: 19343534].
Groll AH, Tragiannidis A. Recent advances in antifungal prevention and treatment. Semin Hematol. 2009;46(3):212–29. doi:
1053/j.seminhematol.2009.03.003. [PubMed: 19549575].
Walsh TJ, Teppler H, Donowitz GR, Maertens JA, Baden LR, Dmoszynska A, et al. Caspofungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(14):1391–402. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa040446.
[PubMed: 15459300].
Wurthwein G, Young C, Lanvers-Kaminsky C, Hempel G, Trame MN,
Schwerdtfeger R, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of liposomal
amphotericin B and caspofungin in allogeneic hematopoietic stem
cell recipients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56(1):536–43. doi:
1128/AAC.00265-11. [PubMed: 22083471].
Mousset S, Buchheidt D, Heinz W, Ruhnke M, Cornely OA, Egerer
G, et al. Treatment of invasive fungal infections in cancer patientsupdated recommendations of the Infectious Diseases Working Party
(AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Oncology (DGHO).
Ann Hematol. 2014;93(1):13–32. doi: 10.1007/s00277-013-1867-1. [PubMed:
.
Spellberg B, Walsh TJ, Kontoyiannis DP, Edwards JJ, Ibrahim AS. Recent
advances in the management of mucormycosis: from bench to bedside. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(12):1743–51. doi: 10.1086/599105. [PubMed:
.
Walsh TJ, Finberg RW, Arndt C, Hiemenz J, Schwartz C, Bodensteiner
D, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. National Institute of
Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med.
;340(10):764–71. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199903113401004. [PubMed:
.
Maertens J, Glasmacher A, Herbrecht R, Thiebaut A, Cordonnier C,
Segal BH, et al. Multicenter, noncomparative study of caspofungin in combination with other antifungals as salvage therapy in
adults with invasive aspergillosis. Cancer. 2006;107(12):2888–97. doi:
1002/cncr.22348. [PubMed: 17103444].
Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, Colombo AL, Thompson-Moya
L, Smietana J, et al. Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin
B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(25):2020–9. doi:
1056/NEJMoa021585. [PubMed: 12490683].
Pappas PG, Rotstein CM, Betts RF, Nucci M, Talwar D, De Waele JJ, et
al. Micafungin versus caspofungin for treatment of candidemia and
other forms of invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(7):883–93.
doi: 10.1086/520980. [PubMed: 17806055].
Ascioglu S, Rex JH, de Pauw B, Bennett JE, Bille J, Crokaert F, et al.
Defining opportunistic invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients with cancer and hematopoietic stem cell transplants: an international consensus. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(1):7–14. doi:
1086/323335. [PubMed: 11731939].
Reed C, Bryant R, Ibrahim AS, Edwards JJ, Filler SG, Goldberg
R, et al. Combination polyene-caspofungin treatment of rhinoorbital-cerebral mucormycosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(3):364–71. doi:
1086/589857. [PubMed: 18558882].
Alvarez-Lerma F, Rodriguez M, Soriano MC, Catalan M, Llorente AM,
Vidart N, et al. Effectiveness of liposomal amphotericin B in patients
admitted to the ICU on renal replacement therapy. Rev Esp Quimioter.
;26(4):360–8. [PubMed: 24399350].
Patel K, Roberts JA, Lipman J, Tett SE, Deldot ME, Kirkpatrick CM.
Population pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration: using
Monte Carlo simulations to predict doses for specified pharmacodynamic targets. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55(12):5868–73. doi:
1128/AAC.00424-11. [PubMed: 21930888].
Hafner V, Czock D, Burhenne J, Riedel KD, Bommer J, Mikus G,
et al. Pharmacokinetics of sulfobutylether-beta-cyclodextrin and
voriconazole in patients with end-stage renal failure during treatment with two hemodialysis systems and hemodiafiltration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54(6):2596–602. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01540-
[PubMed: 20368400].
Burkhardt O, Kaever V, Burhenne H, Kielstein JT. Extended daily dialysis does not affect the pharmacokinetics of anidulafungin.Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;34(3):282–3. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.03.003.
[PubMed: 19369040].
Hirata K, Aoyama T, Matsumoto Y, Ogawa F, Yamazaki H, Kikuti A, et al.
Pharmacokinetics of antifungal agent micafungin in critically ill patients receiving continuous hemodialysis filtration. Yakugaku Zasshi.
;127(5):897–901. [PubMed: 17473532].
Bellmann R, Egger P, Djanani A, Wiedermann CJ. Pharmacokinetics of
amphotericin B lipid complex in critically ill patients on continuous
veno-venous haemofiltration. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2004;23(1):80–3.
[PubMed: 14732318].
Heinemann V, Bosse D, Jehn U, Kahny B, Wachholz K, Debus A, et
al. Pharmacokinetics of liposomal amphotericin B (Ambisome) in
critically ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41(6):1275–80.
[PubMed: 9174183].
Singhal S, Ellis RW, Jones SG, Miller SJ, Fisher NC, Hastings JG, et al. Targeted prophylaxis with amphotericin B lipid complex in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2000;6(5):588–95. doi: 10.1053/jlts.2000.7572.
[PubMed: 10980058].
Schroter GP, Hoelscher M, Putnam CW, Porter KA, Starzl TE. Fungus infections after liver transplantation. Ann Surg. 1977;186(1):115–22.
[PubMed: 327951].
Wajszczuk CP, Dummer JS, Ho M, Van Thiel DH, Starzl TE, Iwatsuki
S. Fungal infections in liver transplant recipients. Transplantation.
;40:347–53.
Kusne S, Dummer JS, Singh N, Iwatsuki S, Makowka L, Esquivel C, et al.
Infections after liver transplantation. An analysis of 101 consecutive
cases. Medicine (Baltimore). 1988;67(2):132–43. [PubMed: 3280944].
Colonna J2, Winston DJ, Brill JE, Goldstein LI, Hoff MP, Hiatt JR,
et al. Infectious complications in liver transplantation. Arch Surg.
;123(3):360–4. [PubMed: 2829792].
Tollemar J, Ericzon BG, Holmberg K, Andersson J. The incidence and
diagnosis of invasive fungal infections in liver transplant recipients.
Transplant Proc. 1990;22(1):242–4. [PubMed: 2309321].
Castaldo P, Stratta RJ, Wood RP, Markin RS, Patil KD, Shaefer MS, et
al. Clinical spectrum of fungal infections after orthotopic liver transplantation. Arch Surg. 1991;126(2):149–56. [PubMed: 1992992].
Kung N, Fisher N, Gunson B, Hastings M, Mutimer D. Fluconazole prophylaxis for high-risk liver transplant recipients. Lancet.
;345(8959):1234–5. [PubMed: 7739317].
Fisher NC, Cooper MA, Hastings JG, Mutimer DJ. Fungal colonisation
and fluconazole therapy in acute liver disease. Liver. 1998;18(5):320–5.
[PubMed: 9831360].
Winston DJ, Pakrasi A, Busuttil RW. Prophylactic fluconazole in
liver transplant recipients. A randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1999;131(10):729–37. [PubMed:
.
Warnock DW. Amphotericin B: an introduction. J Antimicrob
Chemother. 1991;28 Suppl B:27–38. [PubMed: 1778890].
de Marie S, Janknegt R, Bakker-Woudenberg IA. Clinical use of liposomal and lipid-complexed amphotericin B. J Antimicrob Chemother.
;33(5):907–16. [PubMed: 8089064].
Tollemar J, Ringden O. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B. Less toxicity but at what economic cost? Drug Saf. 1995;13(4):207–18. [PubMed:
.
Hiemenz JW, Walsh TJ. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B: recent
progress and future directions.Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22 Suppl 2:S133–44.
[PubMed: 8722841].
Richardson MD. Lipid complexes of amphotericin B: the competitivepicture. J Med Microbiol. 1997;46(3):185–7. doi: 10.1099/00222615-46-3-
[PubMed: 9126817].
Mehta J. Do variations in molecular structure affect the clinical efficacy and safety of lipid-based amphotericin B preparations? Leuk Res.
;21(3):183–8. [PubMed: 9111161].
Anaissie E. J , White M. H , Uzun O , Singer C , Bodey G. P , Azarnia N . Amphotericin B lipid complex vs amphotericin B for treatment of haematogenous and invasive candidiasis: A prospective, randomized, multicentre trial. Proc 35th Intersci Conf Antimicrob Agents
Chemother. 1995
- Abstract Viewed: 8 times
- PDF Downloaded: 0 times